The order of the Ministry of Education of the Vladimir Region of the Russian Federation from October 22, prohibiting students from demonstrating their religious affiliation, caused a sharp reaction from Russian Muslims. This act affected, among other things, hijabs and niqabs. The authorities of the Vladimir Region explained the ban by requests from parents. "The hijab question" is once again at the center of public attention in Russia. In addition to heated discussions, the topic is also actively studied, as evidenced by numerous scientific publications by Russian researchers. At the same time, domestic scientists are examining the situation of the "question" in other secular states. Thanks to the relatively recent work of researchers from the N. N. Miklouho-Maclay Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology, the situation of the "Muslim headscarf" in Spain, Italy and France is being revealed.
The specificity of the discussion of this issue for Spain lies in the centuries-long and very dramatic history of the country's relations with the Arab-Muslim world. Back in the early 8th century, the Iberian Peninsula was almost entirely conquered by Muslims from North Africa, after which the Reconquista began, during which a unified Spanish state emerged. On the other hand, after the end of the Francisco Franco era at the end of the 20th century, the social atmosphere here changed in many ways. In accordance with the agreement concluded in 1992 by representatives of the Ummah with the Spanish state, Muslims have the opportunity to perform prayers and rituals of their cult.
Hijab, like any clothing in Islam, meets the notions of modesty and conformity to the rules of decency. However, opponents of wearing niqabs in modern Spain consider the "Muslim veil" a symbol of discrimination against women. According to analysts, such statements are made by the most ardent Islamophobes. Nevertheless, readers of two major newspapers voted in favor of banning the garment in a survey on public scandals surrounding the hijab in schools. In 2007, the left-liberal publication invited almost three thousand respondents to participate, and twelve years later, almost 9.5 thousand readers took part in a survey by a moderate-centrist newspaper.
Opponents of the ban on the niqab, burqa or hijab call for maximum tolerance towards Muslims in Spain. Supporters of this position interpret the uniqueness of the Spanish concept of relations between the state and the church as “positive secularity”, which allows the manifestation of religious beliefs by residents of the country. Alexander Kozhanovsky in his study “The Muslim headscarf in modern Spain” cites a quote from the Spanish researcher Augustino Motilla: “The capacity of a society, including its legal system, to accept another culture within the framework of respect for fundamental principles and values will promote integration and social peace”.
The real state of affairs shows the dominance of a "permissive" position in Spain. The country has not yet introduced any bans, not only on the hijab, but also on the niqab and the burqa. Restrictions introduced at the municipal level have been overturned by the highest courts. But the entry of the far-right party Vox into the political arena of Spain is noteworthy. The party's strict policies on limiting immigration flows to Spain, as well as protecting Western, European and Christian identity from multiculturalism, indicate a sharp change in public sentiment and may affect the discussion of the "hijab issue" in the future.
Like Spain, Italy has no laws that explicitly prohibit Muslim women from appearing covered in public. In 2007, the issue was raised "in the fight against terrorism" and was actively discussed by political parties, in particular the right-wing Northern League, known for its xenophobic and racist views. The then Minister of the Interior of Italy Giuliano Amato made a resonant statement: “If we are going to ban the head covering in public places, then the question immediately arises: why is a nun allowed to wear her robe, but a Muslim woman is not?”
Most attempts to pass “anti-hijab laws” are observed mainly in the North of Italy, which is quite natural given the political and cultural factors. The regions south of Rome have had close contacts with Muslims since the Middle Ages. For example, Sicily was once home to an Islamic state. Such an experience could not help but affect the memory of the population, causing tolerance for otherness. In two northern regions, namely Lombardy in 2015 and Veneto in 2017, regional decrees were adopted banning the wearing of “discriminatory” clothing and headdresses against women.
In her study of the attitude of Italian society, researcher Oksana Fais-Leutskaya in her work “The Question of Hijab in Italy” refers to the analysis of Western anthropologists. Where the position of Christianity is strong, the population is not afraid of losing “their own” in a religious sense; concerns are caused by the risks of losing cultural identity. A more tolerant attitude towards Muslim women’s clothing is observed in regions where traditional women’s headdresses are still preserved in rural areas. In addition, Italians, who experienced the exodus of the population during the migrations of the 19th and 20th centuries, are characterized by an understanding of strangers thanks to their own experience of being in a minority position.
In France, the topic of women's Muslim clothing has been a recurring theme since the 1980s, when girls wearing hijabs began to appear more and more often in schools and on the streets of the country. The rise of religion among the second and third generations of migrants led to a desire to reconsider the principle of secularism, which is very important for the French. The case of students at a lycée in the city of Creil in 1989, who were not allowed to attend classes for wearing a hijab, marked the beginning of the so-called "headscarf affair". The hot topic, with new episodes constantly emerging, received a wide resonance in society.
In 2004, the French parliament passed the "Law on Religious Symbols in French Public Schools". It stated, in particular, that "in public schools, colleges and high schools, the wearing of signs or clothing by which students demonstrate their religious affiliation is prohibited". Almost immediately after the law was passed, there was a reaction from Muslim women, who began to declare their right to wear hijabs, but these actions initially did not receive much support.
The adoption of the law had a wide resonance in the media space: from various experts, academics, activists – supporters of the Islamic-Christian dialogue, journalists specializing in the religious sphere, and so on. The law also caused protests abroad, especially in the Muslim world. However, public opinion in France is dominated by a negative attitude towards the hijab. This is confirmed by the experience of researcher Marguerite Lubart, described in the work “Hijab in the public space and political discourse of modern France”.
Having unintentionally put on a headscarf to protect her ears from a strong wind during a walk in the city of Brest, Lubart encountered unexpected non-verbal reactions from people. Passers-by avoided the girl, cast sidelong glances, expressed their attitude with facial expressions and many other things that had not happened before when she was without a headscarf. When the researcher, without covering her head, walked along the streets in immigrant neighborhoods, including even in the center of Paris, she, on the contrary, felt not the most friendly looks, to which were added words and shouts of those dissatisfied with the appearance of an uncovered girl.
The topic of Muslim clothing continues to be controversial and is included in several discussions on the principles of French democracy: secularism and free will; the right to freedom of expression and choice of clothing; gender equality; the principle of national unity and the prevention of the isolation of ethnic communities; discrimination and “cultural racism” and many others. There is also a legal uncertainty about the concept of “secularism” in modern France. The disagreements between political forces are so fundamental that it is still very difficult to find agreement.
Of course, the "hijab question" in the countries presented cannot be considered without taking into account numerous features related to the history of a particular region, as well as public sentiment in a particular area. Nevertheless, the politicization of a sensitive topic can be observed. In Spain and Italy, despite the tolerant attitude of local residents towards women's Muslim clothing, the most ardent calls for a ban on hijabs are heard from ultra-right politicians, who often broadcast xenophobic and racist views. In France, where public opinion is dominated by a negative attitude towards the hijab, the discussion is developing towards the formation of a new, more complex picture of identities.
GSV "Russia - Islamic World"
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