The Muslim world learned the art of papermaking and typography back in the VIII century (this is about Persia). It was Muslims who introduced paper production to India and all Europe. The first public libraries emerged in Baghdad, Cairo and Cordoba. Their shelves were full of books, which were made of paper. Due to the religious ban on images of living beings, calligraphy was one of the indispensable attributes of books in such libraries.
We continue to acquaint you with the leading libraries of the Muslim world, which not only absorbed the experience and works of previous generations, but also became centers of education. The first part of the article can be found here.
11. Libraries of Iran
Adud al-Daula (949-982) was the Emir of the Buyid dynasty (934-1062) who at his height of power ruled the empire that stretched from Makran to Yemen and the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. He is credited with patronizing the leading scientific projects of his time. By his order there was built an observatory in Isphahan, where astronomer Abd al-Rahman Sufi (903-986) worked. He also built a famous public hospital, known as the Al-Adudi hospital.
In Shiraz he established a magnificent library with books written from the beginnings of Islam to his time. The building was situated directly inside the royal palace. There were a lot of high bookshelves and the wood was painted golden. There was a separate place for each branch of knowledge. The library was looked after by a treasurer and a director. Only reputable scientists had access to the library.
Library of Abu’l-Fadl ibn al-Amid (970) was also located in the city of Shiraz. Its director was Ibn Miskawayh (932-1030), who served as an official in a Chancellor’s office of the Buyid dynasty. He was also a philosopher and historian from Ray, Iran. He worked as a secretary and librarian for a number of viziers, including Adud Al-Dawla.
One of Adud Al-Dawla’s secretaries was Abul Qasim Isma’el (Sahib ibn al-Abad), who owned a large library. He was not only interested in collecting books, but he was also accompanied by poets, writers and debaters everywhere. In his youth, he was a companion of Abul Fadl ibn al-Amid, therefore he was called Sahib. After ibn al-Amid’s death (970), he was appointed Minister of state. When Samanid ruler Nuh ibn Mansur offered him ministerial post, he excused himself by saying that “my library is so large that it cannot be loaded onto 400 camels”.
The library of Tus is one of the oldest in Iran. It became the “home” for such great people as Niazm al-Mulk, Naseer al-Din Tusi and poet Firdausi. The library of Tus was founded by Nizam al-Mulk, founder of the Nizamiyyah madrasah in Baghdad.
Mashhad library was attached to the mausoleum of Hazrat Ali ibn Musa al-Raza. The library was established around 974 and contained books on the Quran, Hadith, philosophy, logic and jurisprudence. The catalogue of the library “Fihrist Kutub of khan Astan Quds Rizvi” consists of several volumes. Currently the Central Library of Astan Quds Razaviis is a large building in Mashhad and holds more than 1,1 million volumes. Nowadays, it is the International Centre for Islamic research, which contains numerous manuscripts and rare works of antiquity of Islamic history.
Library of the Astan Quds Razavi Foundation in Mashhad /Kasir/Creative Commons 4.0
The library of Shiraz
View of Shiraz from the top of the mountain/آرش (Arche)/Creative Commons 3.0
Islamic libraries have always been diverse in their content, allowing scientists from other countries to share the facilities. Those libraries were famous for their attractiveness and comfort. Many of them were adorned with the classic Islamic dome; some were surrounded by walkways and landscaped by ponds. Among the most legendary libraries was that of Persian city of Shiraz, where there were over 300 hundred chambers furnished with plush carpets. The library had detailed catalogues that helped to find texts that were kept in the storage chambers and were organized in accordance with every branch of learning.
12. Libraries of Syria
In all the major cities of Syria, such as Damascus, Aleppo and Tripoli there were libraries. Damascus was the center of Islamic education for many centuries. Umayyad princes Khalid ibn Yazid (704), and Caliphs Abdul al-Malik ibn Marwan (705), Hazrat Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz (720) established their own libraries here. Khalid was a book collector and helped translate existing Greek alchemy literature into Arabic. The library of the Gami’ Bani ‘Umayya al-Kabir-Umayyad Mosque housed rare and valuable manuscripts, as well as a rich collection of historical documents. This mosque was founded by Caliph Walid I (715) at an immense cost. Mashaf-e-Osmani (the copy of the Quran prepared by Hazrat Osman) was preserved in this library for a long period of time. Ibn Batuta had personally seen the copy of this Quran given to the people of Syria.
In the XVI century, there were 30 madrasahs and 20 libraries in Damascus. Ibn Jubayr Andulasi (1217) noted in his travelogue that of all the madrasahs Nur al-Din Zangi madrasah was the most elegant and awe-inspiring. Besides religious studies, physics, mathematics, astronomy and literature were taught there. Interestingly, every school had its own library.
The Library of Tripoli (Lebanon)
General view of the eastern regions in Tripoli/Tadmouri/GFDL 1.2
During the rule of the Shia family of Banu Ammar (Emirs of Tripoli were theoretically vassals of the Fatimid caliphs in Cairo), Tripoli was a large center of education. The city became a lighthouse of learning, knowledge and literature. The city developed during the rule of Hasan ibn Ammar, who founded a school with a large library. By virtue of this library knowledge spread all over the city, the city was called Dar al-Ilm. About 180 copyists worked in the library, of whom 30 copied books day and night without ability to have a rest. Emissaries were sent to other cities to buy books. It is estimated that there were 130 000 volumes, 50 000 copies of the Quran and 20 000 commentaries to it there. When crusaders captured Tripoli, this library was plundered and burnt.
The Library of Aleppo
View of Aleppo/Karl Forster\Pixabay
Aleppo’s main attraction had long been its glorious libraries. It is said that Prophet Abraham lived here. He had a herd of goats whose milk he got used to give to people for free. Milking in Arabic is Halab, that is how the city got its name Halab (Aleppo). Different families ruled in the city. One of them was Banu Hamdan, whose ruler Saif al-Daula founded a library in the city. Saif al-Daula was interested in literature; therefore the majority of books in the library were on literature. One of the royal scientists of Saif al-Daula was philosopher and mathematician Abu Nasr Muhammad ibn Farabi (872-950). The director of the library was outstanding poet Muhammad ibn Hashem and his brother.
Along with state and private libraries, there were about 80 libraries attached to educational institutions. Ibn Jubayr (1217) noted in his famous travelogue that the library of Madrasah Khalifa was elegant and magnificent, just like the grand mosque of Halab. There were grape vines in all the surroundings of the school, which were so laden with grapes that students could easily pick grapes. One of the rare books in the library was “Mujammal al-Lugha ley ibn-al-Faris”. This manuscript was copied by Ibn Maymoon al-Baghdadi (546 AD). The manuscript arrived in Aleppo from Baghdad.
13. Libraries of Samarqand and Bukhara
Registan Square in Samarqand/Ekrem Canli/Creative Commons 3.0
Samarqand (Uzbekistan) occupies a special place in the history of book collection, their dissemination and conservation. Paper mill was founded in this city in 751. Later, paper was produced in Baghdad in 793 and in Cairo in 900. Introduction of paper made it possible to produce books easily, and it was the main factor in spread of knowledge to far off places. Hulagu Khan (1218-65) established an observatory in Maragheh (Azerbaijan) in 1259 at the behest of his science adviser Khawaja Nasir al-Din Tusi (1274). He obtained a first-class library and staffed his institution with notable Muslim and Chinese scientists. Funded by an endowment, research continued at this institution for at least 25 years after al-Tusi’s death. All those books that had been saved during the sack of Baghdad (1258) were moved to Samarqand.
View of the Old City, Bukhara/Adam Jones/Creative Commons 2.0
Bukhara and Samarqand were the two cultural centers of the Samanid Empire (819-999). The city had long been a center of trade, science, culture and religion. Muhammad al-Bukhari (870), the author of Hadith collection Sahih al-Bukhari, was born in this city.
The Samanid ruler, Sultan of Bukhara Emir Nuh ibn Mansur (976-997) established a fabulous library here. Famous physician and poet Ibn Sina (1037) gained much of his knowledge here. It is stated in Ibn Khallikan’s biographical dictionary: “Abu Ali…frequented his library, which was of incomparable richness, as it contained not only all the celebrated works which are found in the hand of the public, but others not to be met anywhere else and of which not only the titles but the contents were unknown. Here Abu Ali discovered “Treatise on the Sciences of the Ancients, and other Subjects”, the essence of which he extracted, and with the greater part of which sciences he became acquainted. It happened some time afterwards that this library was consumed by fire, and Abu Ali remained the sole depository of the knowledge, which it contained. Some people even said that it was he who set fire to the library”.
14. The Library of Ghazni (Afganistan)
View of Ghazni/ISAF Headquarters Public Affairs Office/Creative Commons 2.0
During the reign of Sultan Mahmud (998-1030), the library of Ghazni was considered to be one of the best in the world. Sultan Mahmud turned the city of Ghazni into the wealthy capital of the extensive empire by ransacking the riches from wealthy India. Although Mahmud carried out ruthless campaigns and terrorized people he found in India, he patronized scholars and intellectuals, such as al-Biruni and philosopher Al-Farabi. An ardent patron of the arts, Mahmud attracted poets from all the parts of Central Asia. There was Uzari and Asadi Tusi among them. Outstanding poet Ferdowsi (1020) presented the epic poem Shahnameh (the book of kings), which consisted of 60 000 verses and it took him 27 years to complete it. Two historians Utabi and Bayhaqi were also his royal historians. Although he was passionate about money, he also spent it lavishly. A library, a museum and a university were established in Ghazni.
15. Libraries of Islamic Spain
View of the Roman bridge, mosque and Puerta del Puente, Cordoba (Spain)/Hameryko/Creative Commons 2.0
After the establishment of Islamic rule in Spain, Cordoba became the jewel of the Caliphate. The city was 24 miles long and 10 miles wide. Its population was one million people. There were 380 mosques, 800 madrasahs, and numerous private and 70 public libraries here. It was the center of learning and intellectual life. It was known as a city of bibliophiles, people who love and highly appreciate books. The people of Cordoba also collected books for their homes. Those who owned personal libraries were considered to be important figures in the society. Books were kept in sandalwood cabinets with a full list of what was kept there. Leather was used for book binding. Some books had silver or gold lettering.
One of the most famous buildings at that time was the Cordoba mosque, which housed the largest university in Europe with over four thousand students. In the Dar al-Kitabat there was a flock of scribes engaged in copying books, and an equal number of bookbinders. Librarian was given a salary. There was also a market, where only books were sold.
Lubna of Cordoba (984) was the director of Cordoba Library, which contained 400 000 volumes, and its catalogue consisted of 44 registers with 20 sheets each. It was located in the palace of Cordoba managed by eunuch Bakiya. Lubna was responsible for reproducing, writing and translating new volumes. She was also palace secretary of Caliph Abd al-Rahman III (961) and his son al-Hakam (976). According to Arab chronicles at the time of al-Hakam II, in some areas of Cordoba there could be more than 170 women who copied books. It not only gives the idea of culture, but also the place of women in the reign of enlightened Caliph.
Dutch Arabic scholar Rheinhart Dozy (1883) thinks that in Islamic Spain every person could read and write, while in Europe only priests and some aristocrats were able to do it. Rest were all illiterates. There were 137 madrasahs and 70 libraries in Granada. Historian Maqqari noted in his works: “People of Andalus have excelled in having libraries. There are many rich people who are illiterate but are proud of the fact that there are libraries in their houses”.
The Library of Caliph Al-Hakam II (961-967 AD) was the most famous. He not only patronized scholars, but he was a scholar himself. He is credited with having founding 27 free schools in his capital, endowing chairs in the university and enriching it with a library unequaled in content. In quest of manuscripts his agents ransacked the bookshops of Egypt, Syria and Iraq.
Library clerks, many of them were women, carefully hand-copied the books, while calligraphers and book binders created beautiful text and cover designs. It is said that Caliph Al-Hakam library contained more than 400 000 books, whose titles filled a 44-volume catalogue. There were universities equipped with vast libraries in major cities Cordoba, Seville, Toledo and Granada. The prestige of the royal library led to a spirit of competition between viziers. Each of them wished to attract scholars and the rarest library talents.
According to one of historians: “Andalusia was, above all, famous as a country of scholars, libraries, and book and art lovers. Books in Cordoba were sought with more persistence and zeal than beautiful concubines or jewels. The city’s glory was the Great Library founded by Al-Hakam II. It housed four hundred thousand volumes and on the opening page of each book there was written the name, date, place of birth and origin of the author, as well as the titles of his works.
The Judge of Cordoba Abu al-Mu’tarrif ibn Futays Abd al-Rahman (1011) was a great collector of books with six copyists. He never lent the work, but made a copy of it and gave as a present. In his library there were so many valuable works that when it was auctioned, it fetched 40 000 dinars.
A poor teacher of Cordoba Allama Muhammad ibn Hazm had his personal library open to the public. He wrote several books, one of which was “Maratab al-Ijma”. A handwritten manuscript is in Khuda Baksch Library, Rampur, India.
Libraries of Islamic Spain brought about resurgence in European thought and sciences.
Over a period of about hundred years (1150-1250) all of Aristotle’s works were translated and introduced to the West, accompanied by a great number of Arabic commentaries, which made it possible to establish a new vast library. The work of assimilating and mastering it occupied the best minds of the Christian world and profoundly altered the spiritual and intellectual life of the West.
The Library of El Escorial, Spain
Interior of the El Escorial Library/Xauxa Håkan Svensson/Creative Commons 3.0
The biggest collection of Islamic handwritten manuscripts is in El Escorial Palace Library, 45 km from Madrid. Escorial was founded by King Philip II in 1563 and served both as a palace and a monastery. A room on the upper floor contains books banned by the inquisition which had burnt 70 000 volumes. The miraculously preserved collection includes more than 1800 Arab titles acquired through the expulsion of Muslims from Spain.
To be continued…
Ilmira Gafiyatullina
Photo: Gerhard Gellinger/Pixabay